• Antioxidant Protection - Astaxanthin is a carotenoid pigment that prevents oxidative damage to skin cells, including lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and DNA damage. Its lipid solubility and hydroxyl groups allow for a wider range of antioxidant activity compared to conventional antioxidants such as vitamin C, carotenes, and vitamin E. This allows astaxanthin to permeate cell membranes's lipid bilayer, targeting lipid-rich areas where oxidative damage occurs. Additionally, its hydroxyl groups can neutralize a diverse array of hydrophillic free radicals. It also displayed greater effectiveness in neutralizing singlet reactive oxygen species (ROS) than vitamin C.

• UV Protection - Astaxanthin acts as a natural sunscreen by absorbing UV radiation and dissipating its energy as heat, thereby reducing the generation of harmful reactive oxygen species (Kishimoto et al., 2017). It also enhances the skin's defense mechanisms against UV-induced programmed cell death and inflammation by upregulating antioxidant enzymes and reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Chalyk et al., 2017).

• Hydration and Moisture - Astaxanthin improves skin hydration and moisture retention by promoting the expression of aquaporins, which are water channels responsible for transporting water across cell membranes (Tominaga et al., 2017). Additionally, astaxanthin enhances the barrier function of the skin by increasing ceramide synthesis and reducing transepidermal water loss (Tominaga et al., 2016).

• Reduced Inflammation - Astaxanthin exerts anti-inflammatory effects on the skin by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as IL-6, TNF-α, and PGE2 (Lyons et al., 2002). It also suppresses the activation of NF-κB, a key regulator of inflammatory responses in the skin (Chen et al., 2017).

• Skin Firmness and Elasticity - Astaxanthin stimulates collagen synthesis by activating the TGF-β signaling pathway within cells and upregulating collagen gene expression (Tominaga et al., 2018). It also enhances the activity of elastin-producing enzymes, which is essential for skin elasticity and resilience (Yuan et al., 2017).

• Brightening and Even Skin Tone - Astaxanthin inhibits melanin production in melanocytes by downregulating the expression of melanogenic enzymes such as TRP-1 (Nishida et al., 2007). This results in a reduction of hyperpigmentation and the promotion of a more even skin tone.

• Anti-Aging Benefits -  Astaxanthin protects against photoaging and chronological aging by preventing collagen degradation through reducing matrix metalloproteinase activity, and enhancing cellular repair mechanisms (Tominaga et al., 2017). Its multifaceted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties make it an effective ingredient for combating the signs of skin aging.

 Some visualised insights